Expedition Philosophy—1956

CHARLES S. HOUSTON

Interest in foreign mountain expeditions has grown enormously in the last decade, inspired perhaps by the heroic accomplishments on the world’s highest peaks. Just as the period from 1854 to 1864 saw the first ascent of almost every one of the Alpine peaks, so may we expect the next eight to 10 years to see the ascent of many of the 2,000 Himalayan giants which tower above 18,000 feet. It is in fact almost as easy to reach the Himalayas today as it was to climb in the Alps one hundred years ago. We shall see more and more climbers of all ages and abilities venturing into these fascinating ranges to gain some of the peace, the excitement, the satisfaction, and the imperishable memories which come from communion with the greatest mountains. I would like to cover superficially some of the problems encountered and some of the satisfactions gained from a properly planned venture.

First let me dispose of the question of expedition philosophy. Now that the mightiest mountains have been climbed we should enter a period in which international competition decreases. Just as the first ascent of the Matterhorn became a race between the French, English, and Italians so have Everest, Makalu, and K2 inspired between countries competition which is neither desirable nor appropriate to their majesty. Such competition tends, in the words of Eric Shipton, "To make success more coveted than experience, so upsetting the delicate balance of values on which mountaineering is founded and to destroy the fundamental simplicity of the game.” With these great prizes won, we may hope that rivalry will decrease and that men will climb for the sake of climbing rather than for the pride of conquest. The happiest climbs are those made for pleasure rather than for gain, for the joy of climbing rather than for the pride of standing on a summit. No mountain is really “conquered.” Anyone who has experienced a storm in the high mountains is well aware of the insignificance, the puny strength, of man beside the elements. For a few moments now and again a man may stand on the summit of a high peak, but only for a few moments, and only periodically.

Large or small?

The argument of "large” versus "small” expeditions is still hotly debated. The huge military type of expedition succeeded brilliantly on Everest, K2, and Nanga Parbat. Superbly organized and planned, brilliantly led and lavishly outfitted, these expeditions were frankly determined upon the summit. Without in any way trying to detract from their success, one must realize that each of them was blessed with ideal weather at the most important times. Annapurna was climbed in a spectacular but dangerous attack, which succeeded partly because maximum advantage was taken of a brief period of good weather, not without risk for which the climbers paid. Other large expeditions, equally well organized and led, have failed when weather struck against them during their critical days. In the glare of publicity which has surrounded these triumphs we may have forgotten the magnificent ascent of Minya Konka by a group of four climbers almost unassisted by porters over 20 years ago. The highest summit reached for many years was Nanda Devi, climbed by a small, rather poorly equipped expedition. Even more impressive, and more recent was the spectacular climb of Cho Oyu, by a party of three Austrians and two porters, a mountain which had been called almost unclimbable by several preceding expeditions. Perhaps we have lost sight of the successful and supremely happy summer parties led by Shipton, Murray, Tilman, and others which filled in great blanks on the map, produced much pleasure for their members as well as for the reading public. The large expedition is a complicated and expensive affair available to only a few, and can be organized only for the greatest peaks. It has probably passed its vogue. We may expect now to see many small parties, lightly outfitted, and planned on an amateur basis. It is interesting to remember that the second highest summit yet climbed by Americans is Istor-o-Nal, climbed last summer by two young men without any formal expedition or organization behind them; their summer’s experience was infinitely greater than it would have been had they been members of a huge organization.

I will agree that the large expedition may be able to deal better with a serious disaster, it may have a slightly better opportunity of reaching the summit in dubious weather on the large mountains, but it is expensive, unavailable to the majority, cumbersome, not infrequently produces hard feelings among the party, and is just as subject and perhaps more so, to the vagaries of the weather as is a small expedition. Five small expeditions could be planned for the price of a large one. Given the right men in the right place on the right day, almost any mountain can be climbed to the top. But given bad weather at the crucial time, no great peak will be climbed. Regardless of philosophy, the vogue of the tremendous expedition has probably ended with the fall of the greatest peaks. Weather plays a far more decisive role in success or failure than does size of expedition.

How does an expedition get started? How does one join an expedition? I have no pat answer to these questions which are asked me often. My own began as informal talks with friends: "How about going to the Himalayas next summer?” Obviously, good previous experience is desirable, gained through week-end climbs followed by longer vacations with guides or more experienced friends in the Alps, Rockies, or Alaska. Eventually, given the will, a major foreign expedition develops. These do not come about by themselves. A few enthusiasts are necessary, and from their enthusiasm and with much hard work an expedition grows. I emphasize the work, for a Himalayan expedition takes a huge amount of planning, most of which falls on a few persons.

Choice of objective

Choice of an objective comes next. On this I have only a little to say, and these are words of caution. Your first expedition should be a great pleasure, and its objective should probably be a limited one if you are planning it yourself. It should be chosen with many points in mind: accessibility, difficulty, and enjoyability. It would be ridiculous for an inexperienced party to attempt Kangchenjunga, and yet in 1936 four of us planned to do just this. Thank heaven we were dissuaded and turned to an only slightly lesser objective, Nanda Devi, and we did have enough sense to add four great climbers to the party. On this smaller peak we had a successful summer, and the expedition was an overwhelming joy for all. The Minya Konka party was certainly overambitious, and nearly failed; however, their experience was unforgettable, and worth its cost. In general, the objective should be chosen not for its height alone, but with other features in mind: The surrounding area, the ease of access, the potential climbing routes, and the season.

At present India is less receptive to Europeans and Americans than is Pakistan. Although the majority of the Himalayan peaks lie along the frontier between India, Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, and Sikkim, much of that frontier is closed for political reasons. It is as a result difficult to obtain permission to enter any but a small area of the Indian Himalaya. Frustrations are numerous in dealing with the authorities, although this may change in the near future. By contrast, Pakistan actively encourages climbers, and permission to enter the huge area of the Karakoram with its satellite ranges, is readily available. At present, Pakistan offers fewer obstacles to climbers than does India.

Permission

Application for permission to enter either Pakistan or India should be made through the appropriate embassy or consulate in Washington or New York. Full details of the objective, alternate objectives, the dates of arrival and departure, the name, occupation, age and past experience of all personnel, together with details of the support and financing of the expedition should be sent with the initial request if possible. If this is not feasible at the beginning, indication should be made of the outline of the expedition and the statement made that full details will follow rapidly. Detailed equipment and food lists will have to be submitted before the expedition is far along. The backing of some well-known organization such as a geographical or mountaineering society is desirable, and character references should be included.

In my experience it has been fruitless to apply through our own State Department, but direct application to the appropriate embassy or consulate, or even to our own embassy in India or Pakistan is more helpful. As is the case in so many things, personal friendship and contacts are often the only way things are expedited.

What time of year?

The timing of the expedition may be crucial. The southeast monsoon coming up from the Indian Ocean attacks the southern end of the Himalaya any time from early May to mid-June, although in any one year it is often predictable within two weeks. This southeast monsoon usually ends in September, and is followed by a period of one or two months of beautiful weather, though increasingly cold. Climbing in the southeastern Himalaya must therefore be done during the short and uncertain period between the end of March (when the winter is over) and the first week in June, or from the middle of September until the end of November when the winter again becomes too severe. In the Karakoram, however, only the southwest monsoon occurs, and its development is weak. It has been frequently stated that the monsoon does not enter the Karakoram, but this is probably true only in part. Undoubtedly the southern-most peaks receive some monsoon weather during July and August, but I believe that the highest peaks in the Karakoram, like great mountains everywhere, form their own weather. The range on the whole is probably subject to the same type of weather as are the Alps: considerable variation from year to year. In general, one should not enter the Karakoram earlier than the 15th of May (because of deep and frequent snowfalls on the approach glaciers) and not later than the 15th of September. No one has any experience of climbing in the Karakoram in the fall, but it is believed that weather conditions are a good deal more severe than they are in the southern range at the same time. Serious high altitude climbing is probably best done during late June and all through July.

Choice of members

The choice of members of your expedition will necessarily be a personal affair. My own philosophy has been to place character, personality, courage, and adaptability as the highest qualifications. Obviously, climbing skill and experience are essential. Good health is imperative, but over and above these qualities is a sense of humor, strength of character, courage in the face of adversity, ingenuity, and consideration for one’s fellows. These are the intangibles which make a good climbing companion. There is no place for the prima donna on a mountain expedition; rock acrobats and entrepreneurs do not belong in the Himalaya. I am not convinced that it is either desirable or necessary that members of a party have climbed together before, or even have known each other before the expedition. Having been on three major Himalayan expeditions with several men I have never known previously, and having had all three turn out to be harmonious and happy, I sometimes wonder whether old friendships may not be more of a hindrance than an advantage. One may be apt to take liberties with old friends that one would not venture with new ones. There is also something fine in meeting a new human being and coming to know him as intimately as one does on an expedition. In general, I believe that the selection of a climbing party should place human quality before climbing skill, expedition experience, and financial solvency.

Finances

Now that the ugly matter of finances has come up it might be well to dispose of this briefly. For attempts on the highest mountains in the world it was possible to obtain money from private sources, newspaper and magazine articles, radio and television. These funds were hard to get in this country and were meager compared to those available abroad. Some estimates of the cost of the Italian K2 expedition run as high as $500,000, although Everest cost somewhat less. There are, however, still many ways of getting the necessary money for smaller expeditions to smaller peaks. I would estimate that six men could go from the United States to the Karakoram, remain three months, and return for $3,000 to $3,500 per person, provided they were satisfied with minimum equipment.

It is undesirable, possibly unethical, and certainly undignified to use advertising as a source of funds. There may, however, be some approach in good taste which would enable a commercial sponsor to help foot the bill in return for dignified publicity for his product. Control should lie in the expedition’s hands, and mutual reassurance of integrity is desirable. Good taste is imperative. The use of expedition photographs by television can be very, very good, and my own experience with the National Broadcasting Company has been one of the happy memories of the 1953 K2 expedition. The sale of motion picture film to commercial companies should not be ignored, but it has not been thoroughly explored as yet. It goes without saying that this film must be excellent. Some money can be raised by lecturing after the expedition is completed, but the story must be good, the speaker competent, and the pictures outstanding, for a high standard has already been set in this field. Certain magazines, notably The Saturday Evening Post, are willing to buy mountaineering stories periodically, and this magazine in particular has been most helpful to many parties. They have a high standard of literary style, and you must meet this or else be rejected. Smaller and cheaper magazines will also pay, though less, and they are more likely to prostitute the story. Certain pharmaceutical manufacturers, food producers, and equipment dealers are willing to foot part of the bill if their own products are used and commented upon frankly. Most companies are willing to contribute limited amounts of food and equipment. A small expedition fund has been established on the West Coast and another in the East to provide money on a loan basis for small expeditions, and there is talk of an American Mountaineering Foundation like the exceptional Swiss Foundation which may have a large enough capital to actually donate funds. Some universities and foundations are willing to act as sponsors for an expedition provided there is a legitimate scientific activity attached.

Food and equipment

Once permission has been obtained, finances in sight, personnel chosen, objective and timing planned, then the collection of food and equipment occupies all of your time. No two mountaineers will have the same ideas on food, and it would be foolish for me to list mine here. The general principles should be to provide the lightest in weight, the simplest in preparation, the most palatable, and the most nutritious. Extra vitamins are imperative. A surplus of at least 25 per cent should be provided for wastage. Provision for flavoring liquids should be extensive, in order to make possible the enormous intake which is required at high altitude. Porter food for the mountain should be similar to that of the climbers, with the addition of some local produce (flour and rice). Living on the country during the approach is excellent though unpredictable, but a stern word of warning should be issued about the risk of illness from bad water, spoiled meat, or dirty preparation. Whether or not the food used on the mountain is prepacked depends on your philosophy. Having used both prepack and bulk method I lean toward the prepacking which has been highly developed by many parties. It is well to remember that above 20,000 or 22,000 feet appetite is poor, energy for food preparation decreases, and individual tastes vary widely.

Expense should never be spared on equipment. The best possible tents, boots, and sleeping bags should be obtained. Clothing is more variable and should be individualized. At present we have no equipment in this country to equal that available in Switzerland, Italy and France, although several groups are making admirable attempts in this direction. Boots are the least satisfactory item of equipment available today, and our own Korean type insulated boots are probably the warmest available, although Norwegian reindeer boots are better in deep snow. Gloves are a difficult item, and no completely satisfactory type is yet available for rock and snow work. Electrically heated gloves and socks are available, but still experimental. Many different tents have been developed, and for high altitude the inner lining, which adds only a pound or two in weight, but a vast amount of warmth is well worthwhile. Individual preference in most of these items is variable, and we could argue all night the relative merits of this and that. I would like to add once more that tents, sleeping bags and boots should be the best available. Stoves are a crucial item also, but several good models are available in the Coleman and Primus. In my own experience gasoline, strained through a chamois and carried in large five- gallon Army cans, is the best fuel. It is possible that the butane stove may be soon available in a high altitude form.

Medical preparations

Before the climbing party is finally selected each should have a thorough physical examination including an electrocardiogram, chest X ray, blood count, and urinalysis. Disqualifying defects include the following: Any type of heart disease or any history whatsoever of rheumatic fever, any active lung condition, recurrent appendicitis, hernia. Minor conditions such as athlete’s foot, hemorrhoids, poor teeth, tonsillitis or bronchitis or intestinal difficulties should be completely controlled before departure. Careful dental repairs should be made just before departure. Protective injections which are necessary include the following: Typhoid, paratyphoid, cholera, smallpox, yellow fever, and plague for certain areas. Tetanus toxoid within six months is important but gas gangrene serum is not. Particular attention should be paid to allergies in the event that a man might need a drug treatment on the mountain. Life and accident insurance, perhaps on a term basis, is desirable for each member.

Financial agreements

In the few months before the expedition departs, particularly if commitments have been made for sizable sums of money, and particularly if it is anticipated that some revenue will be gained after the expedition is over, an undertaking should be made between the members of the expedition regarding funds. This undertaking should be a formal document and should include provision for resolving liabilities should the expedition be insolvent, as well as provision for the proper and fair distribution of any income from books, lectures, or other sources after the expedition has ended. Such an agreement should be binding on all members of the expedition for a period of one or two years after the commencement of the trip, and should be signed by all. Once this is done we have less risk of disagreements and arguments because of the inevitable dollar.

Transportation

Transportation to the mountains depends upon the time available, but few men can afford to take the 30 days required for a boat trip, whereas plane transportation takes only three or four days and costs little more. Military air transport may sometimes be arranged, and rarely a free ride is available by commercial airline. It is conceivable that with more expeditions going to the Himalaya several parties might join forces and charter a large plane. Transportation must be arranged for in advance, and in my own experience it is desirable for the party to go out together, although equipment should precede the expedition by a minimum of three months by sea. Incidentally it is important that the expedition arrange for customs clearance in advance, preferably at the time of the initial request for permission. Otherwise, entry permits are hard to get, and customs duties may be prohibitive. An undertaking must be signed that the equipment will either be used or re-exported, and not given away in the country.

Along this same line it is essential that several other permissions be obtained ahead of time. Permission to bring in cameras, and unexposed film must be received in writing. The same cameras must be re-exported, and their serial numbers should be noted. Permission should also be requested to export the exposed film without development in Pakistan or India, for color developing is almost unavailable there. Unless this permission is requested ahead of time it may be hard to get. Maps, particularly detailed maps of these politically sensitive areas are almost impossible to obtain because of military restrictions. However, most of the mountaineering journals over the past 30 years have printed enough maps to cover any area you wish to visit, and the larger scale maps are not quite so hard to obtain. It is hoped that this difficulty will be solved in the near future. Permission for airplane flight around your objective may be obtained ahead of time, although here again one must realize that this is a politically sensitive area. Whether or not air drops are used depends upon your own philosophy. Only once has a large air drop been used in the Himalaya (on Nanga Parbat in 1938) and considerable wastage and breakage occurred. This is largely because of the high altitude of the drop, and the difficulty of precision bombing in this area.

In general, you should avoid train travel in Pakistan and India during the spring and summer, for it is hot, dirty, slow, and exposes the party to many diseases. Commercial airlines are good and reliable, and will take you as far as a frontier town. Often air transportation can be arranged even further, particularly in the Karakoram, by a reliable organization. Private planes are difficult to charter and unreliable.

Your porters

At the final jumping off place it becomes necessary to arrange for porters, since little can be done from a distance or in advance. The largest expeditions have employed 700 or 800 men and have had much trouble. The smallest parties can manage with 20 or 30 men (for six climbers) and these can be selected personally with anticipation of little trouble. It is essential that their duties be explained in advance and rates agreed upon. Throughout the Himalaya a porter is expected to carry 60 pounds plus his own clothing and such food and equipment as he wishes, and for this he is paid three rupees per day to base camp, four rupees up to 17,000 feet, five, six, or seven rupees above this. Above the glacier line he must be provided with food, snow goggles, a blanket, and, if possible, some clothing. Below the glacier he provides his own food, utensils, and shelter. In most areas the daily stages are fixed, and it should be made clear in advance that the porter caravan will travel the conventional stages. If you require them to make double marches they may expect double pay, but on the other hand, if they make only half marches they may be paid only half fees. It is certain that porter wages will increase as expeditions become more numerous, but it is important not to overpay since this spoils them for the future. Like other people all over the world, once the wage increases there is no limit to what they will ask. One man should be delegated to speak for the porters, and arrangements should be made through him. It is not practical to make a written contract with them, and a contractor is neither necessary nor desirable.

Your dealings with the porters is the most important part of the expedition in the field. Treated well, made to feel members of the team rather than servants, and encouraged, humored, and treated with consideration, they work superbly. Bullied, abused, and treated like inferiors, they will give much trouble. In my own experience theft has been unusual, but temptation should not be placed in their way, and the baggage should be locked or otherwise made secure. You must be able to laugh with the porters, and to help them in difficult places, to show them that you will carry a pack also, and best of all you should be able to talk with them in their own language. Do not try to beat down their price too much, but pay them fairly, and expect fair work from them. If you try to cheat them, they will out-cheat you, but if you allow them to cheat you, they will cheat you more. If you treat them well, you will get a good reputation, and future expeditions will be welcomed. If you treat them badly, your reputation spreads, and future expeditions will be jeopardized.

High altitude porters are now highly organized in India, and the Darjeeling Mountaineering Institute can provide a modest number of experienced high altitude Sherpas. The equivalent does not yet exist in Pakistan. Though some of the Hunzas have acquired experience already, and will ultimately be as good as the Sherpas, who are not welcomed in Pakistan because of the current political friction; the reverse is also true. In my experience the best of the ordinary porters will carry high if treated properly, safeguarded, and provided with good high altitude equipment, sleeping bags, food and shelter. It is important to be sure before you leave that the men you hope to take high are up to it physically, and they should be examined in advance. During the approach march much fun can be had with the porters if you try to train them in rope management and climbing technique. To your surprise they will be better than you are in many ways, though they fall short in incentive, imagination, and independence of action. On the mountain itself I feel strongly that porters should never be left unchaperoned in difficult situations, and should never be left in camp during bad weather without the company of an experienced climber. The disasters which have overtaken porters, have usually been due to leaving them on their own, to exposing them to conditions where judgment and past experience were essential, or to trust their judgment too greatly. Porters are the responsibility of the climbing party, and in this field they should not be treated as equal. On the mountain high altitude porters should not be expected to carry more than the climbing party.

It is worth stressing that on the mountain porters eat as much, require the same weight in clothing and shelter and fuel, and carry no more than climbers. They are more of a responsibility than a climber. It is, therefore, possible to argue just how valuable a high altitude porter is, although in case of trouble he certainly can be life-saving. My own inclination is to use only climbers above 20,000 feet, leaving a small reserve of porters in base camp.

Obviously, knowledge of the language is highly desirable. If you can speak a few words of Urdu and Balti, you will add greatly to your enjoyment of the trip, as well as to the ease of managing the porters. These are not hard to learn, and a few hundred words will do wonders. Incidentally, a representative of the Pakistan government is required to be present on all expeditions. He is usually selected from the military by the government, and in the past has turned out to be a wonderful addition to the party. He may have had little or no climbing experience but makes up for this in desire to learn. Accepted as a member of the climbing party he can be a great addition, and some enduring friendships have been made in this way. It should be part of your pleasure and your responsibility to see that your host gains some benefit from your expedition.

The approach

During the march in to the base of the mountain, however long or short it may be, protection against illness is vital. No one should eat raw foods that have not been thoroughly cleansed in a disinfectant or drink water that has not been boiled. Since many streams contain mica which causes diarrhea even when the water is boiled, a water filter is highly desirable if not essential. Cooking utensils, and the cook’s hands should be clean, although this is more often an unrealized ideal than an actuality. Areas known to have epidemics raging should be avoided completely. One should never pass through a malarious area without taking prophylaxis before, during and for a short time afterwards. At present we have no protection against sand fly fever which is brief though disabling. It is common in the Karakoram. Whether or not one should take a daily protective antibiotic such as Aureomycin or Penicillin is debatable, but personally I do not think it is desirable. Since much of the march will be through hot weather, a high salt intake is necessary, and large amounts of fluid should be provided. Each man should carry his own canteen filled with tea or boiled water each morning. Initial marches should be brief, and of course good footwear is imperative, because too many expeditions have been spoiled by the development of pulled tendons or serious blisters in the first few days. Never forget the sun. Short trousers and short-sleeved shirts may result in serious sunburn which will make life miserable for you for a week or longer. Sunstroke has, in my opinion, been over-emphasized, and the solar topee is a thing of the past. Nevertheless, some type of headgear is recommended for the march in. You may be sure that the first few days of the march will be difficult, full of physical and emotional irritations.

As you approach 10,000 feet some members of the party will feel the altitude. As you go higher the symptoms become more pronounced, and headaches, poor sleep, irritability, and loss of energy are common. Base camp should not be above 15,000 feet and should be in pleasant surroundings and on grass if possible. Brushwood and trees are usually available up to this altitude and will save fuel. Two weeks is a minimum and four weeks is desirable between 15,000 and 18,000 feet for acclimatization, because "rushing” a mountain above 20,000 feet is dangerous and unpleasant. During the acclimatization period frequent sorties should be made on small peaks, and the party thus becomes a team while acclimatizing. Again I must emphasize the necessity of plenty of liquids, for a high urine output appears to hasten acclimatization. Remember that strong tea produces insomnia and indigestion, and for this reason the fruit juice flavoring and the like are desirable.

Attack on the peak

During the actual attack on the peak the ideal is to pack high and sleep low. As a camp is being established one should pack all loads to it during a period of several days while sleeping at the lower camp, moving to the higher camp only when all the packing is completed. Then the process is repeated. During the past few years a startling number of climbers have succumbed to pneumonia, usually of a fulminating type, preceded only by a brief period of sore throat. These cases have generally occurred at the altitudes above 20,000 feet, and the information available is not conclusive. It is possible that many were not actually pneumonia but heart failure. Nevertheless because of this risk, the lower one lives the better. A bad sore throat, any fever, or any suggestion of respiratory embarrassment should be instantly and energetically treated with antibiotics, and the patient should be taken down to a lower altitude immediately. Pneumonia is almost invariably fatal above 20,000 feet. Frostbite is always a menace, made worse by the lack of oxygen and the lack of fluid at high altitude, for these make the blood thicker, more sluggish, and the tissues more susceptible to cold. Early cases of frostbite should be evacuated to base camp. Treatment of frostbite has no place in this article, but I may mention that heroic therapy is neither necessary nor desirable.

Sleep will always be a problem above 20,000 feet. The use of oxygen at night is a luxury which most expeditions cannot afford, but which provides great dividends in the rested feeling next morning. The effectiveness of sleeping tablets varies from person to person at high altitudes, but these should be used freely. After a sojourn at very high altitude descent to a lower camp is highly desirable if only for a good night s sleep, for this is one of the things you crave almost more than anything else at high altitude, with the possible exception of enough to drink.

Oxygen vs. acclimatization

While we are on the subject of oxygen it is worth saying that the properly acclimatized man will, in most instances, be able to climb well above 23,000 feet. Men below the age of 25 have not, for reasons which are still obscure, acclimatized well above this altitude, and in general very high climbing parties should not be younger than 25. The upper age limit is probably between 40 and 45, though here again there are exceptions. Acclimatization is indispensable above 22,000 feet. A well acclimatized party will, in my opinion, certainly climb Everest without oxygen in the next decade. Oxygen relieves the cold, the insomnia, the mental and physical fatigue caused by altitude but has little effect on the shortness of breath which is your worst problem very high. Oxygen is heavy, expensive, and complicates your transport problem. It should be taken to base camp for medical emergencies, but is not necessary on the mountain, and quite apart from the sporting element, need not be used. Certainly, it is not needed on any peak under 25,000 feet.

It is surprising how seldom bad injuries have occurred on high mountains. When they do occur, of course, the evacuation problem is a very serious one. Fractures should be treated conventionally, as should all injuries. I believe that the future will see a trend toward the use of adrenal substances such as Cortisone in accidents or illness at high altitude. Undoubtedly more serious adrenal depletion occurs at high altitude than we now appreciate. Surgery, such as an appendectomy and other serious procedures, should be done only if absolutely imperative. Few men are qualified to remove an appendix under the conditions which prevail at most base camps. In general, antibiotics, morphine, rest, and proper food and drink will be the better treatment for most conditions than will an operation under the crude conditions there prevailing.

Photography and science

The science of high altitude photography is still incompletely explored. This is not the place to go into technicalities, and I will say only that the light values above 15,000 feet are extraordinarily high, and one tends to over-expose rather than to under-expose all film. If a Crookes filter is used, Kodachrome usually turns out a picture which is slightly too brown, but if no filter is used the pictures are usually too blue due to the ultraviolet. Haze filters vary. The contrast between light and shadow is terrific, and uniform exposure is difficult. Film does not deteriorate significantly even in three or four months, but moisture must be avoided. Ektachrome seems to be somewhat better for high altitude light than is Kodachrome, but individual preference prevails here. Of course, cameras must be winterized, freed of all oil and moisture, and are generally carried in a dust and moisture-proof sack. I have never had trouble with properly prepared cameras even to 26,000 feet. Stero-cameras are more effective than the regular, just as color film is better than black and white. If the motion picture film is to be used commercially a tripod is essential, and sound speed (24 frames per second) is better than silent. Tape recorders are now available which run on batteries, and these can add much to the value and interest of film if used intelligently. I am intrigued by the use of a tape recorder instead of a diary. There is no doubt that a professional photographer will add to the party, although I am against such an addition unless he is a climber. A good amateur armed with a good camera, time and imagination, some knowledge of high altitude photography, and a tape recorder can turn out a wonderful film. Sound effects could also be remarkable, especially if they include members of the expedition talking informally about their experiences, particularly when high.

So far as scientific work is concerned on an expedition, it has always seemed to me difficult to combine good mountaineering and good science. The science suffers or the mountaineering suffers, but it is hard to do both. If you need to justify the mountain expedition by some scientific work, then by all means include a scientific wing, but keep it separate, under subordinate leadership, and with its own bandobast.

Home to memories

One of the curious things about an expedition is the effect on its members when they come home. It has seemed to me almost inevitable that the first few weeks of excitement and elation are followed by several months of depression and letdown. To have spent months at high altitude surrounded by some of nature’s most wonderful scenery, to have pushed yourself to the limits of your resources, and to have shared these great experiences with close friends makes the return to civilization a real anticlimax. From an exciting contest with nature where one relies upon one’s self and one’s friends, one returns to the triviality and pettiness, the competition and frustration of civilization. Inevitably the result is discouragement. If you recognize this possibility ahead of time much of the sting is removed, and the return becomes more pleasurable.

I must again emphasize one of the things which I consider most important, the relationship between peoples. Surely if our world is ever to become unified and peaceful the peoples of the world must get to know each other, not as nations, but as individuals. Each American who goes abroad to climb is an ambassador. His manners, his attitudes, his morals are all considered to represent those of his country. He must carry himself politely, he must be considerate and generous, he must not be overbearing and supercilious. He must not criticize either his own country or his host’s. He should not bully. He must not shirk work. What he does will not only make possible or impossible future expeditions, but it will also change the attitude of all who meet him toward America. Each of us is an ambassador, and each of us has the power to do great good or great harm. By these exchanges of good will, by these contacts with people of another country, the bonds of friendship between nations will be strengthened or weakened. And so mountaineering expeditions are in a small sense our own personal contributions toward international peace and good will. Whatever else they are, good expeditions are a source of pleasure which will never end, and one of the richest memories that a man, a mountaineer, or a non-mountaineer, can ever have.